1
 The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was enacted 
5002
span

2
to keep the promise of the Fifteenth Amendment
5001
List

3
 and enable Southern blacks to go to the polls, 
5003
span

4
unhindered by literacy tests and other exclusionary devices.
3
manner

5
 Twenty-five years later, the Voting Rights Act has been transformed by the courts and the Justice Department into a program of racial gerrymandering 
5006
span

6
designed to increase the number of blacks and other minorities 
5004
span

7
-- Hispanics, Asians and native Americans -- 
6
example-e

8
holding elective office.
5004
elaboration-object-attribute-e

9
 In the 1980s, the Justice Department and lower federal courts 
5008
span

10
that enforce the Voting Rights Act 
9
elaboration-object-attribute-e

11
have required state legislatures and municipal governments to create the maximum number of safe minority election districts 
5011
span

12
-- districts 
5010
span

13
where minorities form between 65% and 80% of the voting population.
12
elaboration-object-attribute-e

14
 The program has even been called upon 
5013
span

15
to create safe white electoral districts in municipalities 
5014
span

16
where whites are the minority. 
15
elaboration-object-attribute-e

17
 Although Section 2 of the act expressly disclaims requiring 
5016
span

18
that minorities win a proportional share of elective offices, 
17
elaboration-object-attribute-e

19
few municipal and state government plans achieve preclearance by the Justice Department 
5017
Disjunction

20
or survive the scrutiny of the lower federal courts 
5017
Disjunction

21
unless they carve out as many solidly minority districts as possible.
5017
condition

22
 The new goal of the Voting Rights Act 
5021
span

23
-- more minorities in political office -- 
22
elaboration-additional-e

24
is laudable.
5022
Same-Unit

25
 For the political process to work, 
5025
purpose

26
all citizens, 
5024
span

27
regardless of race, 
26
concession-e

28
must feel represented. 
5025
Same-Unit

29
One essential indicator 
5027
span

30
that they are 
29
elaboration-object-attribute-e

31
is that members of minority groups get elected to public office with reasonable frequency.
5028
Same-Unit

32
 As is, 
33
circumstance

33
blacks constitute 12% of the population, but fewer than 2% of elected leaders.
5031
span

34
 But racial gerrymandering is not the best way 
5032
span

35
to accomplish that essential goal.
34
elaboration-object-attribute-e

36
 It is a quick fix for a complex problem.
5032
evaluation-s

37
 Far from promoting a commonality of interests among black, white, Hispanic and other minority voters, 
5043
antithesis

38
drawing the district lines 
5035
span

39
according to race 
38
circumstance-e

40
suggests 
5036
Same-Unit

41
that race is the voter's and the candidate's most important trait. 
5038
span

42
Such a policy implies 
5041
attribution

43
that only a black politician can speak for a black person, 
5041
List

44
and that only a white politician can govern on behalf of a white one.
5041
List

45
 Examples of the divisive effects of racial gerrymandering can be seen in two cities 
5044
span

46
-- New York and Birmingham, Ala. 
45
elaboration-set-member-e

47
When they reapportion their districts after the 1990 census, 
48
circumstance

48
every other municipality and state in the country will face this issue.
5045
span

49
 New York City: 
5084
TextualOrganization
SectionTitle
50
Racial gerrymandering has been a familiar policy in New York City since 1970, 
5048
span

51
when Congress first amended the Voting Rights Act 
5049
span

52
to expand its reach beyond the Southern states. 
51
purpose

53
In 1972, the Justice Department required 
5051
attribution

54
that the electoral map in the borough of Brooklyn be redrawn 
5051
span

55
to concentrate black and Hispanic votes, 
54
purpose

56
despite protests 
5053
span

57
that the new electoral boundaries would split a neighborhood of Hasidic Jews into two different districts.
56
elaboration-object-attribute-e

58
 This year, a commission 
5055
span

59
appointed by the mayor 
5056
span

60
to revise New York's system of government 
59
purpose

61
completed a new charter, 
5057
Same-Unit

62
expanding the City Council to 51 from 35 members.
5057
cause

63
 Sometime in 1991,
5060
Same-Unit

64
 as soon as the 1990 census becomes available, 
65
condition-e

65
a redistricting panel will redraw the City Council district lines.
5059
span

66
 The Charter Revision Commission has made it clear 
5067
attribution

67
that 
5064
span

68
in response to the expectations of the Justice Department and the commission's own commitment 
5065
span

69
to enhancing minority political leadership, 
68
elaboration-object-attribute-e

70
the new district lines will be drawn 
5066
Same-Unit

71
to maximize the number of solidly minority districts.
5066
purpose

72
 Blacks and Hispanics currently make up 38% of the city's population 
5070
Contrast

73
and hold only 25% of the seats on the council.
5070
Contrast

74
 Several of the city's black leaders, 
5071
span

75
including Democratic mayoral nominee David Dinkins, 
74
example-e

76
have spoken out for racial gerrymandering 
5072
Same-Unit

77
to accord blacks and Hispanics the fullest opportunity for representation.
5072
purpose

78
 In this connection, it is important to note that several members of New York's sitting City Council represent heterogeneous districts 
5075
span

79
that bring together sizable black, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic white populations 
78
elaboration-object-attribute-e

80
-- Carolyn Maloney's 8th district in northern Manhattan and the south Bronx and Susan Alter's 25th district in Brooklyn, for example.
5075
example

81
 To win their seats on the council, 
5078
purpose

82
these political leaders have had to listen to all the voices in their district and devise public policies 
5078
span

83
that would benefit all.
82
elaboration-object-attribute-e

84
 Often they have found 
85
attribution

85
that the relevant issue is not race, but rather housing, crime prevention or education.
5079
span

86
 Birmingham, Ala.: 
5140
TextualOrganization
SectionTitle
87
The unusual situation in Birmingham vividly illustrates the divisive consequences 
5085
span

88
of carving out safe districts for racial minorities.
87
elaboration-object-attribute-e

89
 In Birmingham, 
5086
span

90
which is 57% black, 
89
elaboration-additional-e

91
whites are the minority.
5087
Same-Unit

92
 Insisting 
93
attribution

93
that they are protected by the Voting Rights Act, 
5088
span

94
a group of whites brought a federal suit in 1987 
5090
span

95
to demand 
5091
attribution

96
that the city abandon at-large voting for the nine member City Council 
5091
Sequence

97
and create nine electoral districts, 
5092
span

98
including four safe white districts. 
97
elaboration-set-member-e

99
The white group argued 
100
attribution

100
that whites were not fully and fairly represented, 
5095
span

101
because in city-wide elections only black candidates or white candidates 
5096
span

102
who catered to black interests 
101
elaboration-object-attribute-e

103
could win.
5097
Same-Unit

104
 No federal court has ruled 
105
attribution-n

105
that the Voting Rights Act protects a white minority, 
5102
span

106
but in June the Justice Department approved a districting plan for Birmingham 
5101
span

107
that carves out three white-majority districts and six black-majority districts. 
106
elaboration-object-attribute-e

108
Richard Arrington, Birmingham's black mayor, lamented the consequences.
5135
span

109
 In the past, people 
5105
span

110
who had to run for office 
109
elaboration-object-attribute-e

111
had to moderate their views 
5106
Same-Unit

112
because they couldn't afford to offend blacks or whites, 
5106
reason

113
he said.
5107
attribution

114
 Now you go to districts, 
5110
contingency

115
you're likely to get candidates 
5110
span

116
whose views are more extreme, white and black, on racial issues.
115
elaboration-object-attribute-e

117
 Two hundred years ago, critics of the new United States Constitution warned 
5112
attribution

118
that the electoral districts for Congress were too large 
5112
List

119
and encompassed too many different economic interests.
5112
List

120
 A small farmer and a seaport merchant could not be represented by the same spokesman, 
5114
span

121
they said.
120
attribution

122
 But James Madison refuted that argument in one of the most celebrated political treatises 
5116
span

123
ever written, 
122
elaboration-object-attribute-e

124
No. 10 of the Federalist Papers. 
5117
Same-Unit

125
Madison explained 
126
attribution

126
that a representative's duty was to speak not for the narrow interests of one group but instead for the common good.
5119
span

127
 Large, heterogeneous election districts would encourage good government, 
5121
span

128
said Madison,
127
attribution

129
 because a representative would be compelled to serve the interests of all his constituents and be servile to none.
5121
consequence-n

130
 Madison's noble and unifying vision of the representative still can guide us. 
5127
span

131
As long as we believe 
5124
attribution

132
that all Americans, of every race and ethnic background, have common interests 
5124
List

133
and can live together cooperatively, 
5124
List

134
our political map should reflect our belief.
5126
span

135
 Racial gerrymandering 
5128
span

136
-- creating separate black and white districts -- 
135
definition-e

137
says 
5129
Same-Unit

138
that we have discarded that belief in our ability 
5132
span

139
to live together 
5131
List

140
and govern ourselves as one people.
5131
List

141
 Ms. McCaughey is a constitutional scholar at the Center for the Study of the Presidency in New York. 
5143
TextualOrganization
Author
5001
multinuc
1
purpose

5002
span
5012
background

5003
span
5001
List

5004
span
5005
span

5005
span
5
elaboration-object-attribute-e

5006
span
5012
span

5007
span
5023
span

5008
span
5009
Same-Unit

5009
multinuc
5015
span

5010
span
11
elaboration-additional-e

5011
span
5009
Same-Unit

5012
span
5007
span

5013
span
5009
elaboration-additional

5014
span
14
purpose

5015
span
5020
span

5016
span
5018
concession

5017
multinuc
5018
span

5018
span
5019
span

5019
span
5015
elaboration-additional

5020
span
5006
enablement

5021
span
5022
Same-Unit

5022
multinuc
5007
evaluation-s

5023
span
5030
span

5024
span
5025
Same-Unit

5025
multinuc
5026
span

5026
span
5029
span

5027
span
5028
Same-Unit

5028
multinuc
5026
enablement

5029
span
5023
elaboration-additional

5030
span
5040
Contrast

5031
span
5034
Problem-Solution

5032
span
5033
span

5033
span
5039
span

5034
multinuc
5040
Contrast

5035
span
5036
Same-Unit

5036
multinuc
41
attribution

5037
span
5047
span

5038
span
5043
span

5039
span
5034
Problem-Solution

5040
multinuc
5143
TextualOrganization
Text
5041
multinuc
5042
span

5042
span
5038
interpretation-s

5043
span
5037
span

5044
span
5046
span

5045
span
5044
elaboration-additional

5046
span
5142
span

5047
span
5033
explanation-argumentative

5048
span
5063
span

5049
span
50
circumstance

5050
span
5054
span

5051
span
5050
span

5052
span



5053
span
5050
concession

5054
span
5062
Sequence

5055
span
5061
Sequence

5056
span
5057
Same-Unit

5057
multinuc
5058
span

5058
span
58
elaboration-object-attribute-e

5059
span
5060
Same-Unit

5060
multinuc
5069
span

5061
multinuc
5062
Sequence

5062
multinuc
5048
elaboration-general-specific

5063
span
5084
TextualOrganization
SectionText
5064
span
5066
Same-Unit

5065
span
67
circumstance-e

5066
multinuc
5067
span

5067
span
5068
span

5068
span
5060
elaboration-additional

5069
span
5083
span

5070
multinuc
5074
span

5071
span
5072
Same-Unit

5072
multinuc
5073
span

5073
span
5070
elaboration-additional

5074
span
5082
Contrast

5075
span
5076
span

5076
span
5081
span

5077
span
5080
span

5078
span
5077
span

5079
span
5077
elaboration-general-specific

5080
span
5076
elaboration-additional

5081
span
5082
Contrast

5082
multinuc
5069
explanation-argumentative

5083
span
5061
Sequence

5084
multinuc
5141
List

5085
span
5138
span

5086
span
5087
Same-Unit

5087
multinuc
5099
background

5088
span
5090
circumstance

5089
span
5099
span

5090
span
5089
span

5091
multinuc
5093
span

5092
span
5091
Sequence

5093
span
94
purpose

5094
span
5103
result

5095
span
5098
span

5096
span
5097
Same-Unit

5097
multinuc
5095
consequence-n

5098
span
5089
explanation-argumentative

5099
span
5094
span

5100
span



5101
span
5103
span

5102
span
5101
concession

5103
span
5104
span

5104
span
5085
elaboration-general-specific

5105
span
5106
Same-Unit

5106
multinuc
5107
span

5107
span
5108
span

5108
span
5111
Contrast

5109
span
5111
Contrast

5110
span
5109
span

5111
multinuc
108
elaboration-general-specific

5112
multinuc
5113
span

5113
span
5115
span

5114
span
5113
explanation-argumentative

5115
span
5120
antithesis

5116
span
5117
Same-Unit

5117
multinuc
5120
span

5118
span
5133
background

5119
span
5123
span

5120
span
5118
span

5121
span
5122
span

5122
span
5119
elaboration-additional

5123
span
5117
explanation-argumentative

5124
multinuc
5125
span

5125
span
134
contingency

5126
span
130
explanation-argumentative

5127
span
5133
Contrast

5128
span
5129
Same-Unit

5129
multinuc
5132
attribution

5130
span
5133
Contrast

5131
multinuc
138
elaboration-object-attribute-e

5132
span
5130
span

5133
multinuc
5134
span

5134
span
5135
elaboration-additional

5135
span
5137
span

5136
span



5137
span
5138
interpretation-s

5138
span
5139
span

5139
span
5140
TextualOrganization
SectionText
5140
multinuc
5141
List

5141
multinuc
5046
elaboration-additional

5142
span
5037
example

5143
multinuc



